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Öğe Aluminum Toxicity: A Case Study on Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.)(Tech Science Press, 2023) Ozturk, Munir; Metin, Mert; Altay, Volkan; Kawano, Tomonori; Gul, Alvina; Unal, Bengu Turkyilmaz; Unal, DilekAluminum is an abundant metal in the earth's crust that turns out to be toxic in acidic environments. Many plants are affected by the presence of aluminum at the whole plant level, at the organ level, and at the cellular level. Tobacco as a cash crop (Nicotiana tabacum L.) is a widely cultivated plant worldwide and is also a good model organism for research. Although there are many articles on Al-phytotoxicity in the literature, reviews on a single species that are economically and scientifically important are limited. In this article, we not only provide the biology associated with tobacco Al-toxicity, but also some essential information regarding the effects of this metal on other plant species (even animals). This review provides information on aluminum localization and uptake process by different staining techniques, as well as the effects of its toxicity at different compartment levels and the physiological consequences derived from them. In addition, molecular studies in recent years have reported specific responses to Al toxicity, such as overexpression of various protective proteins. Besides, this review discusses data on various organelle-based responses, cell death, and other mechanisms, data on tobacco plants and other kingdoms relevant to these studies.Öğe Ameliorative effect of Halopteris filicina extracts on growth parameters and genomic DNA template stability of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) under lead chloride stress(Csiro Publishing, 2022) Unal, Dilek; Sevim, Gulcin; Varis, Gokay; Tuney-Kizilkaya, Inci; Unal, Bengu Turkyilmaz; Ozturk, MunirLead is a toxic element that accumulates in agricultural soils through various anthropogenic sources. It inhibits the growth and development of plants and causes mutations in DNA. Macroalgae such as Halopteris filicina contain multifunctional components that may improve plant tolerance to lead stress. In this study, seeds of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) were subjected to six treatments comprising two levels of lead exposure (60 or 120 mu M PbCl2) with or without H. filicina extract (0.5% in distilled water), a distilled water control, and a positive control (H. filicina extract) for 7 days. Physiological responses were investigated. Seedlings that had been treated with 60 and 120 mu M PbCl2 without H. filicina extract showed root growth reduction of 55% and 68.6%, respectively, relative to the control, whereas for 60 and 120 mu M PbCl2-treated seedlings with H. filicina extract applied, the reductions in root growth were lower, at 27.44% and 50.51%. The seedling viability index was decreased by 68.14% at 120 mu M PbCl2 application without H. filicina extract, whereas a 42.48% reduction was recorded for 120 mu M PbCl2-treated seedlings with H. filicina extract applied. Moreover, PbCl2 accumulation resulted in a decrease in leaf pigment content. Leaf pigment content was high in plants receiving the H. filicina extract. The rate of lipid peroxidation caused by PbCl2 was reduced with application of H. filicina extract. Genomic template stability was determined by using the inter simple sequence repeat-PCR technique, which revealed a decrease in DNA stabilisation with an increase in lead accumulation. However, this was alleviated by application of H. filicina extract. Our findings indicate that H. filicina extract both stimulates plant growth and protects from toxic effects by reducing accumulation of metals in the cell.Öğe An Overview of Olive Cultivation in Turkey: Botanical Features, Eco-Physiology and Phytochemical Aspects(Mdpi, 2021) Ozturk, Munir; Altay, Volkan; Gonenc, Tuba Mert; Unal, Bengu Turkyilmaz; Efe, Recep; Akcicek, Eren; Bukhari, AndleebGlobal climate change, especially global warming, is affecting olive production efficiency as well as its product quality. The size and water content of fruit varies depending on the olive fruit yield along with the region, climate, and geographical position as well as agricultural applications. Anthropogenic activities also affect its ecology to a great extent. The plant prefers areas with mild winters and short rainy seasons but is facing long and dry summers, sunny habitats, well drained dry, poor, loamy, clayey-loamy, slightly calcareous, pebbly and nutrient-rich soils, with a pH around 6-8. It is resistant to drought but suffers much from harsh winters and air pollutants, which affect its production. Although the olive plant tolerates temperatures between -7 degrees C to 40 degrees C, the optimum temperature demanded for growth, development, and fruit yield is 15-25 degrees C. The annual precipitation demand lies between 700-850 mm. An important part of the composition of its fruit consists of water and oil or the liquid gold. Main ingredients are additionally fat-soluble vitamins, minerals, organic sugars, and phenolics. Phenolic substances are responsible for many beneficial health effects as well as the taste and aroma of olive fruit. Oleuropein stands out due to its inhibition of oxidation of low density lipoproteins and its hypoglycemic and cholesterolemic effects. It is also a component that protects the olive tree against various parasites and diseases, one of the reasons why olive is recorded as the immortal tree. Olive trees are cultivated in different regions of Turkey. A series of changes occur in morphological, physiological, and biochemical features to overcome different types of stress. In this review, information about the botanical aspects, eco-physiology, and pharmaceutical features of the oil, fruit, and leaves has been evaluated.Öğe Arsenic and Human Health: Genotoxicity, Epigenomic Effects, and Cancer Signaling(Springernature, 2022) Ozturk, Munir; Metin, Mert; Altay, Volkan; Bhat, Rouf Ahmad; Ejaz, Mahnoor; Gul, Alvina; Unal, Bengu TurkyilmazArsenic is a well-known element because of its toxicity. Humans as well as plants and animals are negatively affected by its exposure. Some countries suffer from high levels of arsenic in their tap water and soils, which is considered a primary arsenic-linked risk factor for living beings. Humans generally get exposed to arsenic by contaminated drinking waters, resulting in many health problems, ranging from cancer to skin diseases. On the other hand, the FDA-certified drug arsenic trioxide provides solutions for various diseases, including several types of cancers. This issue emphasizes the importance of speciation of the metalloid elements in terms of impacts on health. When species get exposed to arsenic, it affects the cells altering their involvement. It can lead to abnormalities in inflammatory mechanisms and the immune system which contribute to the negative impacts generated on the body. The poisoning originating from arsenic gives rise to various biological signs on the body which can be useful for the diagnosis. It is important to find true biomarkers for the detection of arsenic poisoning. In view of its application in medicine and biology, studies on understanding the biological activity of arsenic have increased. In this review, we aim at summarizing the current state of knowledge of arsenic and the mechanism behind its toxicity including genotoxicity, oxidative insults, epigenomic changes, and alterations in cellular signaling.Öğe Biotechnological interventions for removal of heavy metals and metalloids from water resources(wiley, 2023) Ozturk, Munir; Unal, Bengu Turkyilmaz; Turker, HuseyinUsable water resources, which are essential for the survival of living beings, are getting severely polluted due to rapid population growth, industrialization, urbanization, chemicals used in agriculture as well as other human interventions. Polluted water resources affect plants and microorganisms, thereby posing a great threat to animal and human health throughout the food chain. One of the most important factors involved in the pollution of our waters is the accumulation of heavy metals and metalloids, as their acute toxic effects should be overcome and these must be converted into less toxic forms following appropriate methods. In recent years, biotechnological methods are being preferred due to their lower cost and environmental friendliness as compared to the chemical and physical methods evaluated for the removal of heavy metals and metalloids. Some of these methods include biodegradation, microbial biosorption, mycoremediation, cyanoremediation, phytoremediation, and biosparging. The use of biological materials such as bacteria, cyanobacteria, fungi, lichens, algae, and plants has become one of the preferred methods for the decontamination of our polluted waters. The biosensors are also used to detect metal and metalloid accumulation in waters and have proved useful tools for the early detection of pollution and taking precautionary measures. This chapter will enlighten the latest developments and the applications in this connection. © 2024 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. All rights reserved.Öğe Copper Toxicity in Capsicum annuum: Superoxide Dismutase and Catalase Activities, Phenolic and Protein Amounts of in-vitro-Grown Plants(HARD, 2015) Islek, Cemil; Unal, Bengu TurkyilmazTo determine some physiological and biochemical changes in Capsicum annuum L. grown in vitro, the effects of different Cu concentrations on this plant were investigated. Cu was applied in the form of Cu sulfate (CuSO4) in three levels (0, 0.1, and 0.2 mM) and at three times (days 8, 10, and 12). With Cu treatments, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) activities, and total phenolic compound amounts increased compared to the control. The protein amount gradually declined with increasing Cu concentrations. This study demonstrated that Capsicum annuum L. is quite tolerant of Cu and mobilizes catalase, superoxide dismutase, and phenolic compounds in order to mitigate Cu-stress damage.Öğe DEVELOPMENT OF A MICROPROPAGATION PROTOCOL FOR ENDANGERED HYPERICUM BILGEHAN-BILGILII BASKOSE & SAVRAN (HYPERICACEAE) SPECIES, LOCAL ENDEMIC TO TURKEY(Pakistan Botanical Soc, 2022) Turker, Huseyin; Unal, Bengu TurkyilmazHypericum species, are medicinally important and well studied for their pharmaceutical values. These species are gradually losing ground due to habitat loss, serious anthropogenic reasons as well as excessive collection from nature. Hypericum bilgehan-bilgilii is a local endemic species in Turkey. The population size is small and facing a threat. Keeping this in view there was a need to develop an In vitro ex-situ conservation protocol. Therefore an attempt was made to develop a protocol for callus induction, shoot growth, rooting and acclimatization for this endemic species. The nodal parts of the plant were preferred as the source of explant. These were cultured on a MS medium containing 2,4-Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D) and Kinetin (Kin) in different concentrations and combinations. The best callus induction was recorded in MS medium including 1.0 mg.L-1 Kin and 0.5 mg.L-1 2,4-D with 6.2 shoots per callus. MS media with different Kin concentrations were used for shoot growth. The best shoot growth was observed on the MS medium with 2.0 mg.L-1 Kin. Shoots grown In vitro were subcultured to MS medium containing 0 5 and 1.0 mg.L-1 indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) for rooting. The best-rooting frequency (90 %) and rooting were determined in MS medium containing 1.0 mg.L-1 IBA. There were 10 root formations per shoot. The micropropagated plantlets were acclimatized in pots filled with peat and by this way, an effective In vitro tissue culture protocol for the species studied was developed and its sustainable conservation way was confirmed.Öğe Effect of Putrescine on Low-Temperature Acclimation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii(Tech Science Press, 2022) Inal, Muslum S.; Unal, Dilek; Unal, Bengu Turkyilmaz; Ozturk, MunirPutrescine is reported to be necessary for cold acclimation under low-temperature stress. In this study, the effect of low-temperature on some physiological and biochemical parameters has been investigated using the green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The lipid peroxidation rate, amount of Rubisco protein, activities of antioxidant enzymes and gene expression of polyamine biosynthesis (odc2, and spd1), heat shock proteins (hsp70c, hsp90a, and hsp90c), and PSII repair mechanisms (psba, rep27, and tba1) were determined to understand the low-temperature response. Exogenous putrescine application significantly increased Rubisco protein concentration and catalase enzyme activities under low-temperature stress. Moreover, real-time RT-PCR results and gene expression analysis showed that polyamine metabolism induced gene expression at low-temperatures in the first 24 h. In the same way, the gene expression of heat shock proteins (hsp70c, hsp90a, and hsp90c) decreased under low-temperature treatment for 72 h; however, application of putrescine enhanced the gene expression in the first 24 h. The results obtained indicated that molecular response in the first 24 h could be important for cold acclimation. The psba and tba1 expressions were reduced under low-temperatures depending on the exposure time. In contrast, the exogenous putrescine enhanced the expression level of the psba response to low-temperature at 24 and 72 h. The results obtained in this study indicate that putrescine could play a role in the PS II repair mechanisms under low-temperature stress.Öğe Effects of Exogenous Salicylic Acid on Antioxidant Activity and Proline Accumulation in Apple (Malus domestica L.)(KOREAN SOC HORTICULTURAL SCIENCE, 2015) Unal, Bengu Turkyilmaz; Mentis, Oguzhan; Akyol, EthemThis study was conducted to determine the effects of exogenous application of different levels of salicylic acid (SA; 0 mM, 3.62 mM, and 7.24 mM) on antioxidant activity and proline accumulation in apple (Malus domestica Borkh cv. Red Chief Delicious) trees during late spring frost. The study was performed in Ulukisla, Nigde, Turkey from December 2012 to June 2013. We measured the levels of photosynthetic pigments, total proteins and proline in leaves, as well as superoxide dismutase and peroxidase enzymatic activities. We also performed morphological observations of the trees. The study was planned according to random experimental design. We determined that SA application increased the fruit number, shoot number, and carotenoid contents in the leaves, but this increase was not statistically significant. However, the fruit weights, superoxide dismutase and peroxidase activities, as well as chlorophyll, protein, and proline levels increased significantly in response to SA treatment compared to the control. In addition, the treated fruits were darker than the control. These results suggest that treating apple trees with exogenous SA may increase antioxidant enzyme activities as well as protein and proline levels and may alleviate the effects of late spring frost.Öğe EFFECTS OF GROWTH REGULATORS ON SEED GERMINATION, SEEDLING GROWTH AND SOME ASPECTS OF METABOLISM OF WHEAT UNDER ALLELOCHEMICAL STRESS(BANGLADESH BOTANICAL SOC, 2013) Unal, Bengu TurkyilmazEffects of growth regulators on seed germination, seedling growth and some aspects of metabolism of wheat under allelochemical stress due to oleander and walnut leaf (extract and powder) were investigated. All parameters e.g. seed germination, seedling growth, leaf pigments except the proline content reduced significantly under stress. On the contrary, GA(3) and IBA showed alleviating activities. The alleviation effect of GA(3) was higher than that of IBA.Öğe Exogenous application of phytohormones and phytometabolites to plants to alleviate the effects of drought stress(Elsevier, 2023) Ozturk, Munir; Unal, Bengu TurkyilmazAs sessile organisms, plants have to cope with various stress factors in their environment. Drought is the most widespread abiotic stress factor and plants may undergo some morphological, cellular, physiological, biochemical, and transcriptomics changes in alleviating it. When exposed to drought, many primary and secondary metabolites with osmoprotectant or antioxidant properties as well as phytohormones are synthesized. Phytohormones and phytometabolites are thought to play a key role in development and yield in plants under drought stress. With the exogenous application of these, the amounts of endogenous phytohormones and phytometabolites increase, and the protection rate of plants from the effects of drought improved. This chapter highlights recent developments in drought tolerance caused by exogenous applications. © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.Öğe Halophytes have potential as heavy metal phytoremediators: A comprehensive review(Pergamon-Elsevier Science Ltd, 2022) Caparros, Pedro Garcia; Ozturk, Munir; Gul, Alvina; Batool, Tuba Sharf; Pirasteh-Anosheh, Hadi; Unal, Bengu Turkyilmaz; Altay, VolkanHalophytes are widely distributed worldwide and thrive in a wide range of environments such as coastal salt marshes, dunes, saline depressions, and inland deserts. They are also able to cope with heavy metal stress due to their developed morphological and physiological traits such as restricted entry of heavy metals through the root system, synthesis and storage of osmolytes such as proline, and intracellular complexation/chelation/compartmentalization of metal ions. Heavy metal-polluted areas result in yield losses of crops, higher environmental risks for the population, and a severe reduction in biodiversity of these areas. This review highlights studies on the heavy metal phytoremediation capacity of halophytic species from different plant families. An attempt has been made to include the pertinent information regarding heavy metal phytoremediation together with the most important characteristics of halophytes, followed by information on different studies conducted under controlled conditions or in natural environments related to heavy metal phytoremediation of different halophyte taxa from different families. The most promising species have been classified as phytoextractors or phytostabilizers together with recommendations for future research prospects in this topic.Öğe Molecular Biology of Cadmium Toxicity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae(Springernature, 2021) Ozturk, Munir; Metin, Mert; Altay, Volkan; De Filippis, Luigi; Unal, Bengu Turkyilmaz; Khursheed, Anum; Gul, AlvinaCadmium (Cd) is a toxic heavy metal mainly originating from industrial activities and causes environmental pollution. To better understand its toxicity and pollution remediation, we must understand the effects of Cd on living beings. Saccharomyces cerevisiae (budding yeast) is an eukaryotic unicellular model organism. It has provided much scientific knowledge about cellular and molecular biology in addition to its economic benefits. Effects associated with copper and zinc, sulfur and selenium metabolism, calcium (Ca2+) balance/signaling, and structure of phospholipids as a result of exposure to cadmium have been evaluated. In yeast as a result of cadmium stress, mitogen-activated protein kinase, high osmolarity glycerol, and cell wall integrity pathways have been reported to activate different signaling pathways. In addition, abnormalities and changes in protein structure, ribosomes, cell cycle disruption, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) following cadmium cytotoxicity have also been detailed. Moreover, the key OLE1 gene that encodes for delta-9 FA desaturase in relation to cadmium toxicity has been discussed in more detail. Keeping all these studies in mind, an attempt has been made to evaluate published cellular and molecular toxicity data related to Cd stress, and specifically published on S. cerevisiae.Öğe Phytohormones and Stress Responsive Secondary Metabolites(Elsevier, 2023) Ozturk, Munir; Bhat, Rouf Ahmad; Ashraf, Muhammad; Tonelli, Fernanda Maria Policarpo; Unal, Bengu Turkyilmaz; Dar, Gowhar HamidPhytohormones and Stress Responsive Secondary Metabolites provides a deep dive into the signaling pathways associated with phytohormones and phytometabolites. With a strong focus on plant stress responses and DNA technology, the book highlights plant biotechnology and metabolic engineering principles. Biotechnology, by using DNA editing technologies, allows the expression of plant genes into other plant species with desirable modulation on plant behavior. Beginning with an overview of phytohormone signaling, growth and abiotic and biotic stresses, subsequent chapters explore DNA modification strategies, epigenetic and epigenomic regulation, and miRNA regulation. This book will be an essential resource for students, researchers and agriculturalists interested in plant physiology, plant genetics and plant biotechnology. © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.Öğe The Allelopathic Effects of Sunflower and Wheat Root Exudates on Sinapis arvensis and Sinapis alba(Tech Science Press, 2019) Unal, Bengu Turkyilmaz; Bayram, MustafaIn this study, we aimed to investigate the allelopathic effects of sunflower and wheat root exudates on the common weeds such as wild mustard and white mustard in our region. The root exudates which were obtained by soaking 8 weeks old sunflower and wheat seedlings (20 or 40 seedlings) in 100 mL of distilled water for 3 days were applied to the leaves of wild mustard and white mustard. In order to compare the allelopathic effect, the recommended dose (1 g.da(-1)) and twice the recommended dose (2 g.da(-1)) of Gromstor (Tribenuron-methyl), a herbicide preferred by farmers for the chemical control of these weeds was also applied. The allelopathy was performed for wild mustard and white mustard seedlings by the measurement of different physiological and biochemical parameters, such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, carotenoid, proline, total protein amounts and superoxide dismutase enzyme activity. The amounts of total chl and carotenoid in wild mustard leaves decreased in all treatment groups compared to control. The highest decrease in total chl (50.93%) and carotenoid (46.69%) was oberved in the treatment of 40 wheat seedlings. 100 mL(-1) distilled water. In the white mustard leaves, the amount of total chl in all treatment groups except the treatment group of Gromstor 2 g.da(-1) and carotenoid in all treatment groups increased compared to the control. The highest increases again were observed in 40 wheat seedlings. 100 mL(-1) distilled water treatment. The proline amounts in wild mustard and white mustard increased in all treatment groups. The highest increase was observed for the treatment of 20 wheat seedlings. 100 mL(-1) distilled water in wild mustard (459.69%) and 40 sunflower seedlings. 100 mL(-1) distilled water in white mustard plant (104.70%). In superoxide dismutase enzyme activities, treatments decreased activity except treatment of 40 sunflower seedling root exudate in wild mustard, while increased activity outside commercial herbicide treatment in white mustard. The results showed that sunflower and wheat root exudates have allelopathic effects on wild mustard and white mustard weeds. It is thought that the study will be a reference for new studies that will enable the use of plant root exudates as bioherbicides or foliar fertilizers and will contribute to the fight against weeds in organic agriculture.Öğe The Use of Meta-topolin in Cell and Tissue Cultures for Increasing Production of Secondary Metabolites(Springer Singapore, 2021) Unal, Bengu TurkyilmazNowadays, increasing the amount of secondary metabolite, which is an active drug and food additive source, gradually gains importance in addition to its important role in the adaptation of plants to the environment. Plant cell and tissue culture technologies have been used to produce and increase plant secondary metabolites since the late 1960s. Strain improvement, medium optimization, selection of high production cell lines, and the use of elicitors such as plant growth regulators may lead to an increase in secondary metabolite production. Cytokinins are an important group of plant growth regulators that can affect plant growth in almost all stages and regulate various biotechnological processes. Meta-topolin (6-(3-hydroxybenzylamino)purine) is an aromatic natural cytokinin. It is thought that the production of secondary metabolites will increase and contribute to industrial production by adding meta-topolin growth regulator as an elicitor into the growth medium. © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021.Öğe VARIATIONS IN THE PROLINE AND TOTAL PROTEIN CONTENTS IN ORIGANUM SIPYLEUM L. FROM DIFFERENT ALTITUDES OF SPIL MOUNTAIN, TURKEY(PAKISTAN BOTANICAL SOC, 2013) Unal, Bengu Turkyilmaz; Guvensen, Aykut; Dereboylu, Aylin Esiz; Ozturk, MunirSoil samples and leaves of Origanum sipyleum L., were collected from 5 different altitudes of Spil mountain situated in the State of Manisa in the West Anatolian part of Turkey. The soils were analysed to determine pH, organic matter content, calcium carbonate and other chemical constituents. The photosynthetic pigment, proline and total protein contents of leaves were also determined. Results obtained showed that O. sipyleum grows on sandy-loam soils, rich in organic matter content, with pH varying between 6.11-6.97. It prefers slightly acidic and neutral soils, rich in N and P, but poor in K. The physiological analyses revealed that total protein and proline contents increased whereas photosynthetic pigment decreased at 520 and 790m altitudes. All parameters decreased at 1020 and 1150m altitudes. A statistically significant correlation was observed at higher altitudes.Öğe Variations in the proline and total protein contents in Origanum sipyleum L. from different altitudes of Spil mountain, Turkey(2013) Unal, Bengu Turkyilmaz; Guvensen, Aykut; Dereboylu, Aylin Esiz; Ozturk, MunirSoil samples and leaves of Origanum sipyleum L., were collected from 5 different altitudes of Spil mountain situated in the State of Manisa in the West Anatolian part of Turkey. The soils were analysed to determine pH, organic matter content, calcium carbonate and other chemical constituents. The photosynthetic pigment, proline and total protein contents of leaves were also determined. Results obtained showed that O. sipyleum grows on sandy-loam soils, rich in organic matter content, with pH varying between 6.11-6.97. It prefers slightly acidic and neutral soils, rich in N and P, but poor in K. The physiological analyses revealed that total protein and proline contents increased whereas photosynthetic pigment decreased at 520 and 790m altitudes. All parameters decreased at 1020 and 1150m altitudes. A statistically significant correlation was observed at higher altitudes.Öğe Vulnerability of municipal solid waste: An emerging threat to aquatic ecosystems(Pergamon-Elsevier Science Ltd, 2022) Bhat, Rouf Ahmad; Singh, Dig Vijay; Qadri, Humaira; Dar, Gowhar Hamid; Dervash, Moonisa Aslam; Bhat, Shakeel Ahmad; Unal, Bengu TurkyilmazDumping waste materials into aquatic ecosystems leads to pollution, which directly and indirectly poses a danger to all life forms. Currently, huge quantities of wastes are generated at a global scale with varying constituents, including organic fractions, emerging contaminants and toxic metals. These wastes release concentrated contaminants (leachates), which are lethal for all ecosystems around the globe because they contain varying concentrations of chemical constituents with BOD5 and COD in the order of 2 x 10(4)-2.7 x 10(4) mg/L, and 3.4 x 10(4)-3.8 x 10(4) mg/L, respectively. Herein, in-depth knowledge of municipal solid waste dumping into the aquatic ecosystems, changes in physicochemical characteristics, availability of in-/organic contaminants, and long-term unhealthy effects are presented. Moreover, an attempt has been made here to summarize the facts related to identifying the deadly impacts of waste on different ecosystem components. The unresolved challenges of municipal waste management are emphasized, which will help employ suitable waste management techniques and technologies to conserve the everlasting freshwater resources on earth.
